Highlighting the need for multiple loading protocols in bi-directional testing
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.55.2.80-94Abstract
Major earthquakes, such as the Canterbury and Kaikoura events recorded in New Zealand in 2010-2011 and 2016 respectively, highlighted that floor systems can be heavily damaged. Quasi-static cyclic experimental tests of structural sub-assemblies can help to establish the seismic performance of structural systems. However, the experimental performance obtained with such tests is likely to be dependent on the loading protocol adopted. This paper provides an overview of the loading protocols which have been assumed in previous experimental activities, with emphasis on those adopted for testing floor systems. The paper also describes the procedure used to define the loading protocol applied in the testing of a large precast concrete floor diaphragm as part of the ReCast floor project jointly conducted by the University of Canterbury, the University of Auckland and BRANZ. Subsequently the limitations of current loading protocols for bi-directional testing are discussed. The relevance of local seismicity on bidirectional demand is demonstrated by examining a large dataset of records from the RESORCE database. It is concluded that bi-directional experimental testing be undertaken using at least two loading protocols that impose different ratios of demand in orthogonal directions.
References
Kam WY, Pampanin S, Dhakal R, Gavin HP and Roeder C (2010). “Seismic performance of reinforced concrete buildings in the September 2010 Darfield (Canterbury) earthquake”. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 43(4): 340–350. https://doi.org/10.5459/ bnzsee.43.4.340-350 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.43.4.340-350
Kam WY, Pampanin S and Elwood K (2011). “Seismic performance of reinforced concrete buildings in the 22 February Christchurch (Lyttelton) earthquake”. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 44(4): 239– 278. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.44.4.239-278 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.44.4.239-278
Fleischman RB, Restrepo JI, Pampanin S, Maffei JR, Seeber K and Zahn FA (2014). “Damage evaluations of precast concrete structures in the 2010–2011 Canterbury earthquake sequence”. Earthquake Spectra, 30(1): 277–306. https://doi. org/10.1193/031213EQS068M DOI: https://doi.org/10.1193/031213EQS068M
Henry RS, Dizhur D, Elwood KJ, Hare J and Brunsdon D (2017). “Damage to concrete buildings with precast floors during the 2016 Kaikoura earthquake”. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 50(2): 174– 186. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.50.2.174-186 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.50.2.174-186
Matthews J, Bull D and Mander J (2003). “Background to the testing of a precast concrete hollowcore floor slab building”. Proceedings, 2003 Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Paper No 077.
Corney SR, Henry RS and Ingham JM (2014). “Performance of precast concrete floor systems during the 2010/2011 Canterbury earthquake series”. Magazine of Concrete Research, 66(11): 563–575. https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.13.00106 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1680/macr.13.00106
Matthews J (2004). "Hollow-core Floor Slab Performance following a Severe Earthquake". Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ.
Lindsay R (2004). "Experiments on the Seismic Performance of Hollow-core Floor Systems in Precast Concrete Buildings". Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ.
MacPherson C (2005). "Seismic Performance and Forensic Analysis of a Precast Concrete Hollow-Core Floor Super- Assemblage". Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ.
Matthews J, Bull D and Mander J (2001). “Investigating the load paths of floor diaphragm forces during severe damaging earthquakes”. New Zealand Concrete Society, TR24: 122– 131.
Matthews J, Bull D and Mander J (2003). “Preliminary results from the testing of a precast hollowcore floor slab building”. Conference Proceedings 2003 Pacific Conference on Earthquake Engineering, February, Christchurch.
Corney SR, Puranam AY, Elwood KJ, Henry RS and Bull D (2021). “Seismic performance of precast hollow-core floors: part 1-experimental data”. ACI Structural Journal, 118(5): 49–63. https://doi.org/10.14359/51732821 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14359//51732821
Puranam AY, Corney SR, Elwood KJ, Henry RS and Bull D (2021). “Seismic performance of precast hollow-core floors: part 2–assessment of existing buildings.” ACI Structural Journal, 118(5). https://doi.org/DOI:10.14359/51732822 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14359/51732822
Ingham J, Liddell D and Davidson B (2001). “Influence of loading history on the response of a reinforced con- crete beam”. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 34(2): 107–124. https://doi.org/10.5459/ bnzsee.34.2.107-124 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.34.2.107-124
Pujol S, Sozen MA and Ramirez JA (2006). “Displacement history effects on drift capacity of reinforced concrete columns”. ACI Materials Journal, 103(2): 253–262. https://www.proquest.com/scholarly-journals/displacement-history-effects-on-drift- capacity/docview/29495486/se-2?accountid=14499 DOI: https://doi.org/10.14359/15183
Krawinkler H, Gupta A, Medina R and Luco N (2000). Development of Loading Histories for Testing of Steel Beam- to-Column Assemblies. Sac background report sac/bd-00/10, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.
Krawinkler H, Parisi F, Ibarra L, Ayoub A and Medina R (2001). Development of a Testing Protocol for Woodframe Structures. CUREE - Caltech Woodframe Project Report W- 02, Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA. https://searchworks.stanford.edu/view/bf933wk8343
FEMA, ATC (2007). 461/Interim Testing Protocols for Determining the Seismic Performance Characteristics of Structural and Nonstructural Components. Technical Report, Applied Technology Council, Redwood City, CA.
Park R (1989). “Evaluation of ductility of structures and structural assemblages from laboratory testing”. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 22(3): 155–166. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.22.3.155-166 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.22.3.155-166
ACI (American Concrete Institute) (2013). Guide for Testing Reinforced Concrete Structural Elements under Slowly Applied Simulated Seismic Loads. Technical Report, ACI 374.2 R-13.
Richards P and Uang CM (2003). Development of Testing Protocol for Short Links in Eccentrically Braced Frames. Final Report Submitted to the American Institute of Steel Construction, Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA.
Krawinkler H, Medina R and Alavi B (2003). “Seismic drift and ductility demands and their dependence on ground motions”. Engineering Structures, 25(5): 637–653. https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2020.1826370 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0141-0296(02)00174-8
Gatto K and Uang CM (2002). Cyclic Response of Wood- frame Shearwalls: Loading Protocol and Rate of Loading Effects. CUREE - Caltech Woodframe Project Report W- 13, Consortium of Universities for Research in Earthquake Engineering, Department of Structural Engineering, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA. http://purl.stanford.edu/tq010jr7772
Krawinkler H (2009). “Loading histories for cyclic tests in support of performance assessment of structural components”. The 3rd International Conference on Advances in Experimental Structural Engineering, San Francisco.
Lignos D (2008). "Sidesway Collapse of Deteriorating Structural Systems under Seismic Excitations". Ph.D. Thesis, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California, USA.
Suzuki Y and Lignos DG (2020). “Development of collapse- consistent loading protocols for experimental testing of steel columns”. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 49(2): 114–131. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3225 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3225
Hutchinson TC, Zhang J and Eva C (2011). “Development of a drift protocol for seismic performance evaluation considering a damage index concept”. Earthquake Spectra, 27(4): 1049–1076. https://doi.org/10.1193/1.3652707 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1193/1.3652707
Rodrigues H, Varum H, Arêde A and Costa AG (2013). “Behaviour of reinforced concrete column under biaxial cyclic loading—state of the art”. International Journal of Advanced Structural Engineering, 5(1): 1–12. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1186/2008-6695-5-4 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1186/2008-6695-5-4
Park R (1989). “United States/New Zealand/Japan/China collaborative research project on the seismic design of reinforced concrete beam-column-slab joints”. Bulletin of the New Zealand Society for Earthquake Engineering, 22(2): 122–127. https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.22.2.122-127 DOI: https://doi.org/10.5459/bnzsee.22.2.122-127
Akguzel U and Pampanin S (2010). “Effects of variation of axial load and bidirectional loading on seismic performance of GFRP retrofitted reinforced concrete exterior beam-column joints”. Journal of Composites for Construction, 14(1): 94–104. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090- 0268(2010)14:1(94) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)1090-0268(2010)14:1(94)
Solberg K, Mashiko N, Mander J and Dhakal R (2009). “Performance of a damage-protected highway bridge pier subjected to bidirectional earthquake attack”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 135(5): 469–478. https://doi.org/10. 1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2009)135:5(469) DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2009)135:5(469)
Raza S, Menegon SJ, Tsang HH and Wilson JL (2020). “Force-displacement behavior of limited ductile high-strength RC columns under bidirectional earthquake actions”. Engineering Structures, 208: 110278. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110278 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.engstruct.2020.110278
Raza S, Menegon S, Tsang HH and Wilson J (2019). “Influence of loading history on the drift capacity of limited ductile reinforced concrete columns”. Proceedings of the Australian Earthquake Engineering Society Conference (AAES 2019), Newcastle, NSW, Australia, pp. 423–425.
Raza S, Tsang HH, Menegon SJ and Wilson JL (2021). “Generalized loading protocols for experimentally simulating multidirectional earthquake actions on building columns in regions of low-to-moderate seismicity”. Journal of Structural Engineering, 147(7): 04021082. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0003056
https://doi.org/10. 1061/(ASCE)ST.1943-541X.0003056
Henry R, Parr M, Brooke N, Elwood K, Liu A and Bull D (2018). “Progress towards experimental validation of precast floor retrofit solutions”. The 2018 Concrete New Zealand Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand.
Parr M, Elwood K, Bull D, Bueker F, Hogan L, Puranam A, Henry R and Brooke N (2019). “Recast floors–progress towards retrofit of precast floors”. The 2019 Structural Engineering Society (SESOC) Conference, Auckland, New Zealand.
Parr M, Elwood K, Bull D, Bueker F, Hogan L, Puranam A, Henry R and Brooke N (2019). “Development and testing of retrofit solutions for hollow-core floors in existing buildings”. The 2019 Concrete New Zealand Conference, Dunedin, New Zealand.
Büker F, Brooke N, Elwood K, Bull D, Hogan L and Parr M (2021). “Development and validation of retrofit techniques for hollow-core floors”. The 2021 Structural Engineering Society New Zealand Conference, Hamilton, New Zealand.
Brooke N, Elwood K, Bui D, Liu A, Henry R, Sullivan T, Hogan L and Del Rey Castillo E (2019). “ReCast floors- seismic assessment and improvement of existing precast concrete floors”. SESOC Journal, 32(1): 50–59.
Mazzoni S, McKenna F, Scott MH, Fenves GL et al. (2006). OpenSees Command Language Manual. Pacific Earthquake Engineering Research (PEER) Center, Berkeley, California, United States.
McKenna F (2011). “OpenSees: a framework for earthquake engineering simulation”. Computing in Science & Engineering, 13(4): 58–66. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1109/MCSE.2011.66
De Francesco G and Sullivan T (2020). “Formulation of localized damping models for large displacement analysis of single-degree-of-freedom inelastic systems”. Journal of Earthquake Engineering: 1–24. https://doi.org/10.1080/ 13632469.2020.1826370 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13632469.2020.1826370
Woods L, Fenwick R and Bull D (2008). “Seismic performance of hollow-core flooring: the significance of negative bending moments”. 2008 New Zealand Society of Earthquake Engineering (NZSEE) Conference, Wairakei, New Zealand.
Jensen JP (2007). "The Seismic Behaviour of Existing Hollowcore Seating Connections pre and post Retrofit". Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ.
Liew H (2004). "Performance of Hollowcore Floor Seating Connection Details". Master’s Thesis, Department of Civil and Natural Resources Engineering, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, NZ.
Akkar S, Sandıkkaya M, Senyurt M, Sisi AA, Ay BÖ, Traversa P, Douglas J, Cotton F, Luzi L, Hernandez B et al. (2014). “Reference database for seismic ground-motion in Europe (RESORCE)”. Bulletin of Earthquake Engineering, 12(1): 311–339. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-013-9506-8 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10518-013-9506-8
Nievas CI (2016). "Design of Structures Subject to Multidirectional Seismic Excitation". Phd Thesis, Understanding and Managing Extremes (UME) School, Institute for Advanced Study (IUSS), Pavia, Italy.
Hong HP and Goda K (2007). “Orientation-dependent ground-motion measure for seismic-hazard assessment”. Bulletin of the Seismological Society of America, 97(5): 1525– 1538. https://doi.org/10.1785/0120060194 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1785/0120060194
Nievas C and Sullivan T (2018). “A multidirectional conditional spectrum”. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 47(4): 945–965. https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3000 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.3000
Nievas CI and Sullivan TJ (2017). “Accounting for directionality as a function of structural typology in performance- based earthquake engineering design”. Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics, 46(5): 791–809. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2831 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/eqe.2831
Shahi SK and Baker JW (2014). “NGA-West2 models for ground motion directionality”. Earthquake Spectra, 30(3): 1285–1300. https://doi.org/10.1193/040913EQS097M DOI: https://doi.org/10.1193/040913EQS097M